ࡱ> 7 DbjbjUU 7|7|@ldFFFDbbxxxN""=$\! |#:a"axxMv.xxxV SN F 0##  A Sense of Smell Institute Sponsored Research Study ODOR-EVOKED MEMORIES AND CHILD BEHAVIOR Gisela Epple Monell Chemical Senses Center Prepared Exclusively for the Sense of Smell Institute The Research & Education Division of The Fragrance Foundation ODOR-EVOKED MEMORIES AND CHILD BEHAVIOR Final Report. Gisela Epple, Monell Chemical Senses Center It has been proposed that the way in which we acquire our subjective responses to smells is through associations with personal experience and the conditioning and modeling of cultural norms (Engen, 1982; 1988; Herz & Engen, 1996). This produces general agreement for the perceived pleasantness/unpleasantness of many odors within a culture, but also accounts for individual differences on the basis of idiosyncratic experiences. Smells may influence a wide range of interactions with our social and physical environment through associative learning. Associative odor learning begins very early in life and can occur from the fetal period through adulthood (Van Toller & Kendall-Reed, 1995). Mothers and their new-borns quickly learn to recognize each others body odors, and these scents may play important roles in mother-infant bonding (Winberg & Porter, 1998). Infants, who are exposed to artificial scents such as cherry or ginger oil while being gently stroked, develop preferences for such scents (Winberg & Porter, 1998). Moreover, at early ages of development (before social modeling and learning has occurred) no differences in hedonic preferences are manifested to odors considered to be either very pleasant or very unpleasant by adults (Engen, 1988; Stein et al., 1958). Among adults, odors acquire meaning most readily when they are associated with emotionally salient events (Herz & Engen, 1996). Adults who are exposed to odors while working on a stressful task experience anxiety when they encounter these odors again (Kirk-Smith et al., 1983; Newman et al., 1994). Memories evoked by odors are more emotional than memories evoked by other sensory stimuli (Herz & Cupchik, 1995; Herz, 1998). On the basis of such findings, we have proposed that scents which are experienced during an emotionally arousing event can acquire the meaning of that event and then later evoke emotions similar to those associated with the original event. These emotions, in turn, may modify behavior. With the support of the Olfactory Research Fund we have investigated the effects of odors associated to emotions on cognitive performance and on odor preferences in young children. Children were chosen because their emotions are easily elicited and because we assumed that they readily form odor-emotion associations. STUDY 1. Methods. In this study, the effects of an odor, that was present while children experienced either prearranged success or failure, on task performance was examined. We predicted that emotions associated with success and failure will be evoked by the appropriate odor cues alone, and that these emotions will influence the children's later performance. To create success and failure, one group of children was given a very easy assignment and completed it successfully. A second group of children worked on an assignment they were unable to complete. Each child sat in front of a three-dimensional maze and was instructed to move a toy figure from two possible start-points to the center of the maze without crossing a line. A desirable toy was shown and the child was told that if they could solve the maze successfully they would win it as a reward. For one group of children the maze was very easy to solve, and these children won a toy. For a second group, however, there was no possible way in which the maze could be mastered, and these children did not win a toy. All children stayed in the test room for five minutes before being given a break. An ambient odor, the experimental scent, was present while all subjects worked on their assignments. Following the experience of success or failure in the presence of the experimental scent all subjects were given a cognitive task unrelated to the first assignment. From each, the success and the failure groups, three subsets of children were formed. One subset of children worked on the task in a room scented with the experimental scent, a second subset in a room scented with a novel odor, the control scent, and children in a third subset worked in an unscented room, I e. with no scent. The maze room (8.5 x 7.5 x 9 feet) and the room in which the cognitive task was administered (8 x 8 x 9 feet) were scented with either Northern Rainforest or Key West. Each fragrance served as experimental scent for one half of the subjects and as control scent for the other half. The two odors were considered equally pleasant. Odors were delivered into the room using a hidden Environmental Aroma System. Odors and delivery apparatus used in this research were donated by AromaSys Inc. Minneapolis, MN. After working with the maze, successful and unsuccessful subjects left the test room for a 20 minute break. Subjects were then taken to another room and were given a worksheet picturing 120 animal icons. Among these pictures were 40 puppies. They were identical, except that 20 puppies missed a tail. The children were asked to find and circle all tailless puppies by the time an audio-taped voice finished counting to 10 (90 s). The number of tailless puppies circled on each worksheet, minus the number of incorrectly marked pictures, was used as a measure of performance under the various test conditions. After each child had completed the work sheet, children who had solved the maze successfully and won a toy, were rewarded with a sticker. Previously unsuccessful children were told that they now won a toy, and were presented with a toy and a sticker. Results. If odor-evoked memories of success and failure influence performance, children who had solved the first assignment successfully should perform better on the second task when the room contains the experimental scent than in the presence of a control scent or in the absence of a scent. Previously unsuccessful subjects, on the other hand, should perform worse in the presence of the experimental scent. After a number of children had been tested, it became obvious that for the easy-maze-group there was no difference in performance as a function of the ambient odor present during the worksheet. It appeared that the worksheet was not difficult enough to allow children working in the presence of the experimental scent, i.e. the success odor to outperform children working in the presence of a control scent or in an unscented room. The experiment should be repeated, using a more demanding cognitive test that measures performance as well as persistence. The study using the unsolvable maze has been completed. Subjects were 24 boys and 24 girls, aged 4-5 years, who were tested in a counterbalanced factorial design. Figure 1 shows the mean performance of children in the three odor groups at test. Analysis of Variance conducted on the scores with odor-test group and gender as variables revealed that children who performed the cognitive test in the presence of the experimental scent, i.e. the same odor as the failure maze, did worse than subjects in any other group F(2,42) = 3.57, p < 0.05. Fishers LSD post-hoc comparisons confirmed that subjects in the experimental scent group did worse than subjects in the control scent and no scent groups. Performance of subjects in the control and no scent groups, however, did not differ. There were no differences between boys and girls (mean boys = 15.50, mean girls =16.04). Additional analyses showed that Northern Rainforest and Key West odors as the experimental scents produced no differences in performance. STUDY 2. Methods. In an earlier study Epple & Kornbau (1995) found that children develop preferences for ambient odors they experienced while watching an emotionally involving story on video. In the present study emotional and contextual factors that may play a role in the formation of such preferences were investigated. The findings of Epple & Kornbau (1995) raise two questions that are addressed: 1. Does formation of an odor preference depend on emotional involvement during the event associated with the original odor experience or can an emotionally neutral event cause a preference for an associated odor? 2. Is the preference for an odor that had been associated with an emotionally salient or neutral event dependent on the odor being later encountered in a context related to the event? Four and five-year old children watched one of two 10-minute-long video tapes. One was emotionally involving (EI), the other emotionally neutral (EN). Both were taped specifically for the study, using similar animal characters. One group of children watched EI, a second group watched EN. An ambient odor was present while the children watched their stories. After viewing the tape, children were interviewed to assess their involvement in the story. A 20-minute break followed. Then subjects were taken to another room and were shown two identical plastic boxes (39 x 26 x 20 cm). Each box was sealed with a tightly fitting lid. One hole (3 cm ID) had been drilled in the center of each lid. Glass stoppers sealed the holes tightly. Each box contained a sheet of blank paper and an odorant on perfumer blotter paper. One box was scented with the odorant that had been paired with the story, the other with a control odorant. The subject were instructed to smell the air in each box and then choose one of the sheets and draw any picture he/she liked to create. Two equally pleasant scents (A and B) were selected. Each scent was present during the EI story for half of the subjects and during the EN story for the other half. The odors had been judged to be mildly pleasant by adult subjects and were adjusted to equal intensities. Epple & Kornbau (1995) found that children preferred the scent that had been associated with the EI story when they were given a choice between that scent and a control fragrance. Each scent had been applied to a sheet of paper, and both sheets depicted the same scene from the story. Under these conditions the children experienced the odors in the context of the story. For the present experiment we predict that if preferences for odors associated with one or both stories depend on the odor being presented in a context related to the story, i.e. together with a visual recall cue of the story, children will choose among the scented boxes at random. A preference for scents associated with one or both stories, on the other hand, would indicate that context is not essential for preference to be exhibited. If the emotional value of the original event is not important for preference formation, children should respond similarly when choices between odors associated with the EI and the EN story are given. A preference for scents associated with the EI story only would stress the importance of the emotionality associated with odor memory formation. Results. A completely counterbalanced set of tests has been performed with female subjects. Not enough boys were available to complete the schedule for male subjects. For the girls there was no preference for scent associated with either story (Fig. 2). The same trend emerged fin the results of test using boys. These result suggests that in order to develop preferences for odors that they had previously experienced in a specific context, children require context recall cues in another sensory modality. Since the results of the present study and those of Epple and Kornbau (1995) were not obtained under identical conditions, both studies should be repeated under identical conditions, in order to reconfirm the finding. For a replication of the studies a counterbalanced design with emotional context of the video and absence or present of context cues during preference testing as independent factors should be used. It is interesting to note that after selecting a sheet of drawing paper from a scented box, none of the children created a picture that was related to the video they had seen a short while ago. CONCLUSIONS. The results of our maze study support the hypothesis that emotions can become conditioned to odors and in turn influence behavior. This finding substantiates the view that associative learning is a powerful mechanism by which odors acquire personal significance, especially when learning takes place under emotionally salient conditions (Kirk-Smith & Booth, 1987). The results of our odor-preference study implicate that non-odor context cues are important for preference formation in young children. It has been shown in adults that odor associations are very resistant to being un-learned or re-learned (Lawless & Engen, 1977), and are especially long-lasting (Engen & Ross, 1973). Thus, odors that have acquired specific meanings early in life may set-up long lasting cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses. Our results suggest that scents that have acquired specific emotional associations can alter behavior and performance. There are important implications for this finding in any setting where ambient odor scenting can be achieved. For example, our present results suggest that odors associated with success and achievement may facilitate persistence and performance on intellectual tasks in children, both at school and at home. On the basis of previous work, scents associated with security might also help alleviate anxiety induced by unfamiliar environments in nonverbal, mentally handicapped children (Epple et al., 1995). Further implementations include the possibility of improving behavioral responses in a variety of circumstances (from physical health to inter-personal relationships) by using odors that have become associated to positive and situationally appropriate emotions. REFERENCES. Engen, T. (1982). The Perception of odors. Toronto: Academic Press. Enge, T. (1988). The acquisition of odor hedonics. In S. Van Toller & G.H. Dodd (Eds.), Perfumery: The psychology and biology of fragrance, pp.79-90. New York: Chapman & Hall. Engen, T., & Ross, B.M. (1973). Long-term memory odors with and without verbal descriptions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 100, 221-227. Epple, G., & Kornbau, H. (1995). Exposure determines preference for fragrances in pre-school children. In R.Apfelbach, D. Muller-Schwarze, K. Reuter, & E. Weiler (eds.), Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, Vol 7, pp. 561-569. Epple, G., Antonucci, D., & Hawley-Moore, J. (1995). Do odor memories influence behavior in children? In A.N. Gilbert (Ed.), Compendium of Olfactory Research, pp. 55-56. Olfactory Research Fund, Ltd., Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa. Herz, R.S. (1998, in press). Are odors the best cues to memory? A cross-modal comparison of associative memory stimuli. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Herz, R.S., & Cupchik, G.C. (1995). The emotional distinctiveness of odor-evoked memories. Chemical Senses, 20, 517-528. Herz, R.S., & Engen, T. (1996). Odor memory: Review and analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 3, 300-313. Kirk-Smith M.D., & Booth, D.A. (1987). Chemoreception in human behaviour: experimental analysis of the social effect of fragrances. Chemical Senses, 12, 159-166. Kirk-Smith M.D., Van Toller, S., & Dodd, G.H. (1983). Unconscious odour conditioning in human subjects. Biological Psychology 17, 221-231. Lawless, H., & Engen, T. (1977). Associations to Odors: Interference, mnemonics, and verbal labelling. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 52-59. Newman, P.D., Hastings, L., & Frank, R.A. (1994). The conditioning of anxiety to an odor: A possible mechanism of sympton maintenance in sick building syndrome. Abstract, 16th Annual Meeting of ACHEMS. Stein, M., Ottenberg, M.D., & Roulet, N. (1958). A study of the development of olfactory preferences. Archives of Neurological Psychiatry, 80, 264-266. Van Toller, S., & Kendal-Reed, M. (1995). A possible protocognitive role for odor in human infant development. Brain and Cognition, 29, 275-293. Winberg, J., & Porter, R.H. (1998). Olfaction and human neonatal behaviour: clinical applications. Acta Paediatrica 87, 6-10. 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